The Mesoamerican ballgame was a ball sport created by the Olmec around 1600 BC, which would later flourish under the Mayans and Aztecs. The game would spread throughout the totality of Mesoamerica, including parts of North and South America, as well as the Caribbean. A version of the sport exists today under the name ulama, which is played and celebrated by indigenous peoples of Central America. The Mesoamerican ballgame was called pitz in Ancient Mayan, which evolved to pokolpok as a Yucatec Mayan word. The Aztec called it ōllamaliztli or tlachtli in their native language of Nahuatl. In modern Spanish, the game was referred to as juego de pelota maya, pelota maya, or juego de pelota mesoamericano.
Strong evidence of the Mesoamerican ballgame being an Olmec invention comes from the Aztec, who referred to them as the “rubber people.” They were known for their latex production since they had access to the rubber trees of the region. The oldest rubber balls in the world were found at an Olmec sacrificial offering site at El Manatí, along with other ballgame equipment like the ceremonial stone “yoke,” named after the agricultural tool, which were commonly found at other Mesoamerican ballcourts. This evidence connects these artifacts to the ballgame as well as serving some type of religious function.
Mesoamerican ballcourts have been found as far north as Arizona, and as far south as Nicaragua. The earliest established ballcourt, dating to around 1400 B.C., is located in modern day Guatemala. Earlier ballcourts probably did not survive since they were made of compacted dirt compared to the more modern stone ballcourts that still survive today. With over 1,500 ballcourts discovered and still intact, we know that while the courts could be dramatically different in size, they all followed a similar shape of a long narrow playing area with sloped sidewalls that could be used to bounce the ball. Depending on the size of the court, the endzones were either left open or enclosed, and served as the target each team was trying to advance the ball towards. Viewers could watch the game atop buildings placed alongside the playing area, similar to modern-day viewing stands. The Mayans introduced a new feature to the game, vertical stone rings, which the Aztec would use in their ballcourts as well. Ballcourts had decorations of gods, heroes, and other iconography, as well various plants and flowers grown along its eight to eleven foot high walls.
There is no recorded official rule set for the Mesoamerican ballgame, but the best-recorded eyewitness testimony comes from Diego Durán, a Dominican friar who observed the Aztecs play in the 16th century. He mentioned that players could only strike the ball with the hips, thighs, and knees. However, there is art that depicts other versions of the game that include rackets or wooden sticks with a smaller ball, as well as a version that allowed strikes with the forearms, similar to volleyball. It seems like the hip-ball version was by far the most popular, and was the one that was played in the stone ballcourts. The games were played between two teams, each featuring a “hero,” or main player that did most of the offensive action, with teammates behind for defense and support.
The game featured two ways to win the game: either by getting the ball through the vertical stone hoop, or by scoring the most points by the end of the game. Getting the ball through the hoop was incredibly rare and difficult to do. Duran said that someone could stand next to the hoop and throw the ball and still only make one shot out of a hundred. If the ball did go through the hoop, that was an instant victory regardless of the previous score, and the player who scored it received tons of prizes and glory. Since getting the ball through was a rare occurrence, most gams were settled by points. Points could be earned when the opposition hit the ball with anything other than the hip/knee, if the ball was hit into the opponents endzone, or the opponent could not get the ball past the midline (“letting the ball die”). Interestingly enough, modern day ulama probably resembles the older version played by the Olmec, which did not include the stone rings, but only used the points system.
The Mesoamerican Ballgame served many functions, including religious functions, entertainment and gambling, as well as conflict resolution between neighboring states. The ballcourts had a multipurpose use as a gathering place for cultural events, musical performances, religious ceremonies, and festivals. During the actual ball games, spectators were treated to music featuring whistles, ocarinas, and drums. Coastal ballcourts located in West Mexico also utilized a conch shell, maybe to mark the beginning and end of play.
The ritual and religious functions of the game served as a metaphor for the battle between god and man (Mayan) or between the gods (Aztec). The Aztecs “may have seen it as a battle of the Sun, personified by Huitzilopochtli, against the forces of Night, led by the Moon and the Stars, and represented by the goddess Coyolxauhqui and Coatlicue sons the 400 Huitznahua.”According to the Mayan creation story Popol Vuh, twin brothers took the heroes journey to avenge their father as they battled the lords of the underworld. The twins had numerous magic powers, including the ability to revive themselves after death. There was an instance where one of the brother’s head was cut off and it was used as the ball for the ballgame, but he later retrieved it and made himself whole. The severed head within the story could be the foreboding origin of the ritual sacrifice seen with the Mesoamerican ballgame, at least for the Mayans. The ballcourt would represent a gateway to Xibalba (the underworld), and the ensuing game would portray the battle from the myth.
The human sacrifice associated with the game cannot be separated from the belief that the sacrifice was needed for cosmic balance and the continuation of reality. The gruesome but necessary sacrifice through decapitation was needed to keep the engine of existence going. At a ballcourt in Chichén Itzá, there is a motif of a decapitated ballplayer with serpents and vegetation sprouting from the neck, symbolizing the “regenerative nourishing power of sacrificial blood.” Human sacrifice was associated with the game all throughout Mesoamerica, but who was sacrificed, the winners or the losers, is still unclear. While logic would suggest the losers should be sacrificed as punishment for losing the game (as was commonly seen with the Aztecs), there is evidence that sacrificing the winner would be a more honorable sacrifice to the gods. Even without the sacrifice, the game was brutal enough with injuries common when a ball hit a player in unprotected areas, including the face and stomach, which could even result in death. Modern ulama players are “perpetually bruised” like their ancient counterparts. Durán had an infamous account of a ballplayer getting their hip bruise lanced because it was so bad.
Despite it’s brutality and human sacrifice, the Mesoamerican ballgame could be used for conflict resolution instead of going to actual warfare similar to how Native Americans tribes of the Great Lakes region would use lacrosse instead of war. Evidence of this use comes from the distribution of locations of the ballcourts themselves. More ballcourts were found in areas without a strong central government presence, so it stands to reason that the game could be used to mediate conflicts that could not be adjudicated by an authority figure. The mighty Aztec empire had relatively few ballcourts compared to other, smaller, neighboring states with a weaker central authority. While the game replaced war, it certainly emulated it, with players arriving to the game in full battle regalia or ceremonial dress, before stripping down to a loincloth padded at the hips. Players often had ceremonial war paint, head dresses, and other emblems to give them power. The way the game was played resembled the battle tactics used in actual war, which was meant to injure enemies instead of killing them, so they could be later sacrificed. Having two players oppose each other elevated them to hero status, with their supporting players in the background. Heroes’ battling each other is feature of many other cultures as well; Achilles and Hector immediately come to mind.
Matches between powerful leaders or celebrities would draw massive crowds and lots of wagering. Even the participants would get in on the action. According to one account, “Axayacatl, the father of Montezuma, wagered a year’s tribute income plus some towns against the city of Xochimilco. He lost to his opponent, the king of Xochimilco, and had him assassinated.” Because of the loss, it was predicted that the mighty empire would fall, which it did eventually, which gave credence that the game itself contained powers of divination. Supposedly “Montezuma himself played Netzahualpilli, the king of Texcoco, staking three turkeys against his opponent’s entire realm.” Aztec ball courts were typically located near the main marketplaces, the ideal location for wagering that, according to Durán, included “jewels, slaves, precious stones, fine mantles, the trappings of war, and women’s finery.”
The Mesoamerican ballgame still endures with the play of uluma, which is not only a testament to the importance of the game in ancient times, but also reflects the dedication of modern people to keep its tradition alive. If your class is studying Mesoamerican cultures, it would behoove you to play this game in your physical education class to enrich their experience and connect them to the culture in a way that only sport can.
Materials:
· A large play area (gym or outside)
o If played outside, you will need cones or rubber disc dots to mark the boundaries of the playing area as well as the midline
· At least one big yoga ball
o To make the game more difficult, you can use a bouncy kickball instead
· Optional
o Two 55-gallon containers to place on both sides of the playing area. These will serve as the stone vertical hoops.
Minimum Amount of Students: This game could be played with as few as two students! However, the perfect number is closer to eight, and certainly many more could work well.
Prior Knowledge: The students should be studying cultures from Mesoamerica. This could include the Olmec, Mayans, and the Aztecs.
Presentation
· This game will resemble net-less volleyball.
· Split your class into two different teams. Each team will be able to inhabit half of the playing area.
· The playing area should have a rectangular shape with a middle division line (half court line if in a gym).
· Optional
o Place two 55-gallon containers on both sides of the division line. These will serve as the stone vertical hoops.
· Have one player from each team move to the center of the playing area while remaining on their side. Any extra players should protect the boundary lines on their side.
o After a stoppage in play, rotate the main player with a boundary defender to give everyone a chance to be the “hero.”
· The game begins by having one player “serve” the yoga ball to their opponent by rolling the ball to their opponent. Like volleyball, the team that scored last is the team that serves.
· Players are allowed to strike the yoga ball with their hips, thighs, and knees.
o To prove that they hit the yoga ball with their knee and didn’t kick it with their foot or shin, they must have their knee completely bent when the hit the ball.
· If the ball touches anything other than the hip, thigh, or knee, that is a point for the other team.
o I have let my smaller students ram into the ball with their shoulder, as long as they keep their arms against their body.
· Each team is trying to hit the yoga ball to the other side over the midline. The ball is allowed to bounce or roll, and is a good hit as long as it stays within the perimeter of the playing area. If the ball is hit over the midline and cannot be returned, that is a point for that team.
o Reasons a ball cannot be returned are the other team returned the ball with a bad hit (that went out of bounds), or the ball rolled outside of the perimeter on their side before a defender could return it.
· If the ball is hit in the air and goes outside of the playing area, that is a point for the other team (similar to volleyball or tennis).
· A ball can be passed to a teammate without penalty as long as it’s bouncing. However, a rolling ball cannot be passed from teammate to teammate. If a rolling ball is touched by two players on the same team, that is a point for the other team.
· If the ball stops rolling at any point on a team’s side, that is a point for the other team.
· A player cannot touch the ball more than once in a row. If a player touches the ball twice in a row, that is a point for the other team.
· If you are playing with the 55-gallon containers (Aztec and Mayan version), the team that hit the ball in the container automatically wins the game regardless of the score.
o This is risky because a missed hit will almost always go out of bounds, which gives the other team a point.
Aims:
Direct: For the students to learn about different Mesoamerican cultures
Indirect:
Listening to directions
Teamwork and team building
Communication
Strategy
Sportsmanship
Physical skills practiced:
· Hitting a yoga ball with hips, thighs, or knees
Control Of Error:
The instructor will have to act as a referee for the game. If the ball goes inside one of the containers, that is proof that that team has won the game.
Age: All ages
Bibliography
Cartwright, M. (2013). The Ballgame of Mesoamerica. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/604/the-ball-game-of-mesoamerica/ Last retrieved February 14th, 2022.
Earley, C. (2017). The Mesoamerican Ballgame. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art. New York: The Metroploitan Museum of Art. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mball/hd_mball.htm Last retrieved February 14th, 2022.
Jones, C. (1985). The Rubber Ball Game – A Universal Mesoamerican Sport. Expedition Magazine. Volume 27, Issue 2. https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the-rubber-ball-game/ Last retrieved February 15th, 2022.
Mesoamerican ballgame. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballgame. Last edited February 5th, 2022. Last retrieved February 14th, 2022.
Petrus, M. (2014). The Brutal and Bloody History of the Mesoamerican Ballgame, Where Sometimes Loss Was Death. Atlas Obscura. https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/meso-american-baseball Last retrieved February 15th, 2022.
Smith, K. (2020). 3,400-year-old Mesoamerican ball court sheds light on origins of the game. Condé Nast. https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/03/3400-year-old-mesoamerican-ball-court-sheds-light-on-origins-of-the-game/ Last retrieved February 15th, 2022.
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